The Impact on Individuals & Communities 

Sexual Violence & Individuals Who Identify as LGBTQ 




© National Sexual Violence Resource Center and Pennsylvania Coalition Against Rape 2012. All rights reserved. 
This document was supported by Cooperative Agreement # 5VF1CE001751-03 from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 
(CDC). Its contents are solely the responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official views of the CDC. 


This project is supported by Grant No. 2010-SW-AX-0019 awarded by the Office on Violence Against Women, U.S. Department of 
Justice. The opinions, findings, conclusions, and recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and do not 
necessarily reflect the views of the Department of Justice, Office on Violence Against Women. 



The content of this publication may be reprinted with the following acknowledgement: 
This material was reprinted, with permission, from the National Sexual Violence Resource Center’s publication 
entitled The impact on individuals & communities: Sexual violence & individuals who identify as LGBTQ. 


This guide is available by visiting www.nsvrc.org or use your smartphone to scan the QR Code (at left) for more 
information online. 



The Impact on Individuals & Communities 

Sexual Violence & Individuals Who Identify as LGBTQ 


The purpose of the guide is to provide information to community-based sexual violence program 
advocates, counselors, preventionists and administrators on responding to sexual violence against 
individuals who identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer or questioning (LGBTQ). This 
resource is designed in hopes of assisting them in providing programs and services that are shaped by the 
strengths, needs, and experiences of LGBTQ communities. 

Despite the advances made in policy, media, and individual understanding, our society 
continues to discriminate against and target LGBTQ communities with hate crimes, 
discrimination and other injustices. Therefore, individuals who identify as LGBTQ may 
experience heightened isolation, shame, hypervigilance, struggles with disclosure, 
secrecy, and vulnerability in relation to their sexual orientation or gender identity (Struve, 
1997). Victims who identify as LGBTQ may face a “double layered” impact of these factors — 
they experience not only the stigma of sexual assault but also on their sexual orientation or 
gender identity. As a result, they may not feel welcome or satisfactorily served within 
traditional service systems. 

People who identify as LGBTQ are incredibly diverse. Individuals may also identify by race, 
class, generation/age, biological sex, ethnicity, ability, political affiliation, profession, religion, 
geographical location, parental status, and other identifiers. As with all survivors, it is 
important to meet individuals who identify as LGBTQ where they are at and not make 
assumptions based on their sexual orientation or any other aspect of their identity. It is 
important to work within an empowering model that acknowledges individuals as their own life 
experts and community members as critical to the prevention of sexual violence. 

Building accessible and competent programs and services requires a commitment to 
continuous learning and improvement. Cultural understanding with any group, including people 
who identify as LGBTQ1, requires a daily commitment, one that is flexible and open to 
change. Therefore, this guide is intended to provide some of the most current and 
accessible information and resources, with the knowledge that advocates will continue to learn 
as new understandings emerge. This guide cannot fully capture the complexities and 
diversity within LGBTQ communities. While it cannot provide an exhaustive discussion of 
these complexities, it does provide an overview of issues, and provides some context 
for the experience of many survivors of sexual violence who identify as LGBTQ. Furthermore, 
this guide is offered with the understanding that communities will take this information and 
adapt it so that it is appropriate for their local community. 

1 
In an attempt to honor people as individuals first and not by a particular aspect of who they are, and for the sake of consistency in the guide, we 
have used terms like “individuals who identify as …”. The selection and use of the term “LGBTQ” in this guide is intentional as most of the available 
research is about people who identify as LGBTQ. It is not meant to exclude people who might identify differently. For more information about language 
and having discussion around gender, see the NSVRC’s Talking about gender & sexuality: Sexual violence & individuals who identify as LGBTQ 


Sexual Violence and LGBTQ Communities 

The statistics and information available on the prevalence of sexual violence in LGBTQ 
communities, as with all research about marginalized groups, do have limitations. 
Population-based studies, like the U.S. Census, have not typically included questions about 
sexual orientation and gender identity, limiting the census-related data available on 
LGBTQ communities. 

Because research is constantly emerging, below are some available data: 

• While women who identify as lesbian are slightly less likely to be sexually assaulted in 
adulthood than women who identify as heterosexual (Hughes, Haas, Razzano, 
Cassidy, & Matthews, 2000; Long, Ullman, Long, Mason, & Starzynski, 2007), they are 
more likely to experience gang rape than heterosexual women (Hughes et al., 2000). 

• Male victims of sexual assault may have difficulty integrating their experience due to 
the myth that men cannot be raped. Male rape is also often minimized based on the 
stereotype that gay-identified men are overly sexual beings who invite and want sexual 
contact all of the time. When men who identify as gay are raped by strangers they 
are more likely to be blamed for their trauma experience and perceived as unconsciously 
desiring victimization (Wakelin & Long, 2003; Washington Coalition of Sexual Assault 
Programs [WCSAP], 2003). 

• People who identify as transgender are often targeted for sexual violence because of their 
gender non-conformity (Kidd & Witten, 2007; Lombardi, Wilcins, Priesling, & Malouf, 2001; 
Mizock & Lewis, 2008). 

• In a study of 162 men who identified as gay and 111 women who identified as lesbian, 52% 
of the participants reported at least one incident of sexual assault/coercion 
(Waldner-Haugrud & Gratch, 1997). In this same study, men who identified as gay 
reported 1.6 incidents per person on average; in comparison there were 1.2 incidents per 
person reported by the women participants who identified as lesbian. 

• In a study of 152 individuals who identified as gay or lesbian, 41% of the women who 
identified as lesbian self-identified as a victim of child sexual abuse, sexual assault, sexual 
abuse as an adult, sexual harassment or attempted assault (Sloan & Edmond, 1996). 
Of those, 57% identified as being victims of child sexual abuse (twice the rate of male 
respondents), 38% identified sexual harassment, 21% identified attempted sexual 
assault, and 21% identified sexual assault. 


Sexual violence in intimate relationships 

The National Violence Against Women Study estimates that almost eight percent of women 
and less than one percent of men reported a history of sexual violence in their intimate 
relationships (Tjaden & Thoennes, 2000). Additional studies estimate between 44%-60% 
of women who experienced other forms of intimate partner violence have reported being 
sexually abused in their intimate relationships (Cattaneo, Deloveh, & Zweig, 2008; Howard, 
Riger, Campbell, & Wasco, 2003). These studies did not differentiate between heterosexual, gay, 
lesbian or bisexual relationships. One study found that violence in same-sex relationships 
occurs at roughly the same rate as violence in heterosexual relationships (Elliot, 1996). 

Because of the lack of adequate research examining prevalence rates of sexual 
victimization in intimate relationships of heterosexual and respondents who identified as 
LGBTQ within the same studies, comparison across groups is difficult (Gentlewarrior & 
Fountain, 2009). One study did find that similar strategies were used by sexually 
coercive partners in both heterosexual and same-sex relationships. Abusive or violent 
partners may use alcohol and drugs, guilt, and the perceived emotional vulnerability of their 
victims as part of the sexual coercion (Christopher & Pflieger, 2007). Specific forms 
of control and manipulation that perpetrators use to harass and intimidate their partners in 
LGBTQ relationships may include outing a partner’s sexual orientation to family, employer, 
or community; reinforcing fears that no one will help; or monopolizing the support resources in 
the often small LGBTQ community. 

According to the National Gay and Lesbian Task Force (NGLTF), protections for those in same-
sex relationships vary by state. Some states have domestic violence laws that are gender 
neutral and include household members and dating partners, others have laws that are 
gender neutral but apply to only household members, while others have laws that explicitly 
exclude survivors of domestic violence within same-sex relationships. 

Hate-motivated or bias-oriented violence 

People perceived to be challenging sexual and gender norms are often targeted for sexual 
violence. Hate-motivated acts of violence can include but are not limited to hate crimes, a 
legal definition which refers to acts determined by law to be a crime, such as assault, vandalism, 
or homicide, where the motive (or one of the motives) of the offenders is bias against the 
perceived identity of the person they are targeting (National Coalition of Anti-Violence 
Programs [NCAVP], 2010). Many acts of hate-motivated violence, such as hate speech, 
are not illegal, but may still have serious and traumatic impacts on the individuals who 
survive them, as well as their friends, families, and communities (NCAVP, 2010). Many 
individuals who identify as LGBTQ also face bias because they belong to other traditionally 
discriminated against groups based on identity such as race, class, incarceration history, 
immigration status, or physical or cognitive ability (NCAVP, 2010). 

Individuals who identify as lesbian, gay and bisexual reported similar rates of bias-oriented 
sexual violence, meaning sexual violence was directed toward them because of their sexual 
or gender identity. Women who identify as lesbian or bisexual experienced more instances 
of sexual violence that were not attributed to homophobia/biphobia compared to men who 
identify as gay or bisexual (Herek, Cogan, & Gillis, 2002). It can be inferred that this 
difference underscores the risk for sexual abuse associated with being female in U.S. culture 
(Gentlewarrior & Fountain, 2009). Women who identify as lesbian or bisexual experience 
sexual violence based in both gender bias and homophobia/biphobia (Gentlewarrior & 
Fountain, 2009). 

Adult survivors of child sexual abuse 

In one study of women who identify as lesbian or bisexual, 39.3% report sexual victimization 
before the age of 16 (Morris & Balsam, 2003). This study also found that participants who 
were victimized in childhood were four times more likely to experience the same type of 
victimization (sexual or physical) in adulthood and about twice as likely to experience another 
type of victimization in adulthood. The limited research that has compared the rates of child 
sexual abuse (CSA) experienced by women who identify as lesbians of color versus those who 
identify as white suggests that women who identify as lesbians of color often experience 
victimization, including CSA (Descamps, Rothblum, Bradford, & Ryan, 2000), at higher 
rates than do white women (Morris & Balsam, 2003). CSA experienced by women who 
identify as lesbians and bisexual is associated with an overall increased rate of psychological 
distress, revictimization later in life, depression, alcohol abuse, and high-risk sexual behaviors 
(Descamps et al., 2000; Morris & Balsam, 2003). 

When researching the experiences of male survivors of CSA who identify as gay, abuse was 
often characterized by high levels of forced penetration, physical force, instances of 
multiple perpetrators, and abuse that occurred over an extended period of time (Paul, Catania, 
Pollack, & Stall, 2001). The vast majority of adult male survivors of CSA who also identify 
as gay or bisexual found the abuse upsetting at the time of the victimization and approximately 
half continue to find memories of the trauma upsetting (Paul et al., 2001). Histories for adult 
male survivors of CSA who identify as gay or bisexual include a range of difficulties including 
mood disorders, chemical dependency, and HIV/AIDS because of high-risk sexual behavior 
(Brady, 2008; Brennan, Hellerstedt, Ross, & Welles, 2007; King, 2000; Paul et al., 2001). 

There is a high prevalence of sexual assault and rape starting at a young age for individuals who 
identify as transgender (Stotzer, 2009). Much of the abuse and violence towards people who 
identify as transgender is committed before the age of 18 (Kidd & Witten, 2007). Boys who 
display behaviors typically viewed as feminine are at an increased risk for all kinds of 
victimization — including sexual trauma (Brady, 2008). 

Serving Survivors Who Identify as LGBTQ 

Marginalized and traditionally oppressed groups, such as LGBTQ communities, often face 
complex barriers to getting help. These barriers can arise from both internal and 
external homophobia, biphobia, transphobia and heterosexism. While it is important to 
acknowledge the diversity within LGBTQ communities, and to not make assumptions, 
there may be some common concerns for victims who identify as LGBTQ that advocates 
can consider. Consider some of the following barriers: 

• Harmful myths and stereotypes about people 
who identify as LGBTQ exist both within and 
outside of LGBTQ communities. People who 
identify as transgender often face magnified 
stereotypes, judgments, and misconceptions, 
which are even more deeply rooted in our 
society, including within LGBTQ communities. 

• Additional barriers exist if the victim also 
lives with a disability, is a person of color, is 
in later life, is a non-English speaker, is an 
undocumented immigrant or has unstable 
citizenship status, is in substance abuse 
recovery, is living in poverty, or is otherwise 
part of a nondominant group. Layers of 
oppression can deeply influence the ways in 
which individuals experience sexual violence 
and the options available for help. 

• If a survivor is not out, sharing or reporting 
the assault may be difficult or even 
impossible. A victim may fear being outed if 
the perpetrator was a partner or 
acquaintance, or if the assault occurred in 
a place that may out them (i.e., queer bar, 
LGBTQ meeting place, etc.). The victim may 
also fear being outed by the service provider. 
For some people, especially individuals 
who identify as transgender, being out may
increase their risk for violence.

• Body shame and discomfort may be a service 
barrier for survivors who identify as 
transgender. Sexual violence may involve 
parts of the body they are uncomfortable 
with or no longer recognize as part of their 
new identity, adding to the trauma. 

• There is a lack of specific and adequate 
services for individuals who identify as 
LGBTQ. There are even fewer resources 
specifically addressing the experiences of 
individuals identifying as transgender, as 
traditional social service models do not 
create space for gender variance or nonconformity. 
For instance, will a hotline 
counselor assume a male voice on the other 
end is a perpetrator and not a survivor? Can 
a transgender person (female to male) access 
services for male victims if biologically 
female but identifying and appearing as a 
male? How would that person be received in 
a support group? Can a transgender woman 
(male to female) become a volunteer at the 
rape crisis center if the center has gender 
restrictions allowing only female volunteers? 

• As LGBTQ communities may be small and 
tight-knit, seeking services at an LGBTQ-
identified agency may take away the option 
of anonymity, and may even require 
interacting with friends of the perpetrator. 
Confidentiality may not be a reality for some 
survivors who identify as LGBTQ. 
Additionally, individuals who identify as 
LGBTQ may be reluctant to report or get help 
for sexual violence for fear that doing so will 
bring more negative attention from society 
to LGBTQ communities. 

• Historically, because of homophobia and 
heterosexism, many survivors who identify 
as LGBTQ have not been treated with 
compassion or understanding by social 
systems such as medical, law enforcement, 
mental health, legal, education, rape crisis, 
and others. Therefore, they may be wary of 
reaching out to a mainstream provider in 
a crisis situation. Many LGBTQ-identified 
people may not trust the police because 
of insensitive or outright discriminatory 
treatment in the past. This is especially true 
for communities of color and transgender 
communities. 

• Some victims have not been taken seriously 
and have instead had their experiences 
minimized or sensationalized by service 
providers. This is often because of 
stereotypes and misconceptions about 
sexual violence in general and specifically 
about sexual violence against people 
identifying as LGBTQ. In particular, many 
individuals who identify as transgender 
have been met with judgment and lack of 
sensitivity and understanding. 

• Medical care and SAFE exams 


Building agency capacity 

Some organizations may take a “We treat everyone the same” approach to serving 
victims who identify as LGBTQ. This approach often comes from the belief that the best way 
to ensure equal treatment and accessibility is to treat everyone the same. Unfortunately, this 
approach does not recognize that accessibility and cultural competence involve being 
responsive to both similarities and differences between individuals and communities. 


“Sometimes equality means 
treating people the same 
despite their differences, 
and sometimes it means 
treating people as equals 
and accommodating 
their differences.” 

— saskatchewan Ad Hoc Committee on 
Abuse in Lesbian Relationships, n.d. 



The reality is that survivors who identify as LGBTQ face unique challenges because of 
bias and discrimination in society. This discrimination leads to unique issues that need 
to be addressed. Many of these issues, such as coming out, have a direct bearing on safety and 
it is important to look at background and community experiences when serving 
individuals (Pilarhernal, Almeida, & Dolan-Del Vecchio, 2005). Although it may come from a 
place of genuine concern, the “We treat everyone the same” approach is the equivalent 
of the “colorblind” approach to racism, and can lead to a denial of differences and a failure to 
acknowledge the context of how homophobia can impact an individual who identifies as 
LGBTQ (Langley, 2001). 

Considerations for ensuring 
culturally competent practice 

Individuals who identify as LGBTQ live life in the context of oppression — oftentimes, their 
trust has been violated by our society’s discriminatory practices, so outreach efforts 
should be continuous and in multiple settings. This could mean having a booth at local LGBTQ 
community events or purchasing ad space in LGBTQ publications. These long-term outreach 
efforts will cultivate trust and demonstrate a commitment to providing competent services. 
Cultural competence is an ongoing, long-term commitment to continue to expand one’s 
education and understanding about the complexities of diverse cultural groups — not 
a checklist of static characteristics about any specific culture or group. This is true when 
working with LGBTQ communities as well. It is important to understand that there are 
cultural differences among victims who identify as LGBTQ. In other words, just because 
one person in the LGBTQ community dresses, speaks, acts, and identifies a certain way does 
not mean that everyone else does as well. It is important that practice is informed by an 
understanding of terminology. For example, sexual orientation and gender identity are 
distinct, so being accurate when using both terms is important. Sensitivity to the 
implications and limitations of language is critical when working with any group. For 
example, using the term, “LGBTQ” only makes sense if an agency is addressing issues of 
each community. Using the acronym can be problematic at times, because individual 
communities represented within that broad term can get lost. It may not always be 
appropriate to use “LGBTQ,” especially when outreach efforts are targeted for a specific 
community such as lesbian-specific outreach efforts. The following are some examples of 
how to infuse cultural competence into practice. 


Serving all survivors: 
Using existing skills and approaches 

1. As with any population, when working with 
individuals who identify as LGBTQ, advocates 
can draw from their skills in providing 
services that are person-centered, 
compassionate, sensitive, respectful, and 
non-judgmental. It is important to balance 
the general tenets of advocacy with 
specific skills in cultural competency and 
an understanding of the oppression and 
diversity within LGBTQ communities. 


2. Advocates can play a helpful role in 
supporting individuals’ rights to self- 
determination. This includes supporting 
individuals in determining to whom they are 
out. For many people this is a critical factor 
in feeling in control. Victims may not be out 
to themselves and might be uncomfortable 
talking about their sexuality or gender 
identity. It is critical that survivors are able 
to come out at their own pace if they choose 
to come out at all. 

3. Advocates can help individuals who identify 
as LGBTQ in navigating their options, discuss 
safety, coping mechanisms, support systems, 
and possible health, mental health, legal, and 
other services. Advocates may have to be 
especially resourceful when looking at safety 
options as the survivor may have faced 
discrimination from traditional service 
providers in the past or have little social 
support. 

4. It is helpful for advocates to be 
knowledgeable about the LGBTQ-specific 
groups and resources in their local 
communities and to build proactive 
relationships with such groups so they can 
then provide meaningful information and 
referrals. 

5. Choices made by a survivor may or may not 
be related to sexual orientation or gender 
identity. For some survivors who identify 
as LGBTQ, their gender identity or sexual 
orientation may not be the most pressing 
issue. 


Being aware of the implications 
and limitations of language 

Terminology has a real impact on people; it is not just a matter of political correctness. 
Respecting how an individual chooses to identify is paramount, given that labels change 
over time and may vary depending on someone’s cultural and economic background, 
age, geographic region, or political ideas. It is helpful to respect how each person self- 
identifies and then to mirror that language. This conveys respect and openness. (See 
Talking about gender & sexuality: Sexual violence & individuals who identify as LGBTQ) 

1. Not all victims use the same language to 
describe their sexual orientation or gender 
identity and may not identify with the/an 
LGBTQ community. For instance, the terms 
“gay” and “lesbian” are not always preferred 
by LGBTQ communities of color, since there 
is a strong image of the gay and lesbian 
movement being a white, middle-class 
political movement. Some individuals who 
identify as LGBTQ might use terms like ‘in 
the life’ or ‘same-gender loving.’ ‘Queer’ can 
be offensive to some, while others use it as 
a way to reclaim the word and to identify 
themselves. Some people dislike the term 
‘homosexual,’ because of its history of being 
a psychological or medical classification of 
a mental disorder (this classification was 
changed in 1974 and same sex attraction is no 
longer considered a mental illness). Some 
people prefer not to apply labels to 
themselves at all. In the spirit of meeting 
people where they are and practicing 
person-centered services, advocates can 
ask individuals about the language and 
terminology they prefer to use to describe 
their own experiences. 

2. Using gender-neutral language can be very 
meaningful and helpful. For example, using 
gender-neutral language when exploring a 
client’s support system (for instance saying 
partner, significant other, or spouse, instead 
of boyfriend or girlfriend, husband or wife, 
etc.) can help to convey respect and 
openness. It is also helpful to use gender-
neutral pronouns when discussing the 
perpetrator and not assuming just because 
the survivor identifies as LGBTQ that the 
perpetrator was someone of the same sex. 
Using gender-neutral language not only 
conveys validation and openness to 
individuals who identify as LGBTQ; it also 
helps to create a larger climate that is free 
from heterosexism. 

How to be an ally 

Regardless of sexual orientation or gender identity, people have preconceived notions and 
biases toward others. As victim service providers, it is critical to examine and address 
bias. Just as cultural competence is a lifelong journey that requires ongoing education, 
resources, and support, so is the process of understanding and addressing one’s personal 
biases. It is helpful to work with colleagues, supervisors, and others in learning how to pay 
attention to inner thoughts when facing various situations. The first step toward understanding 
and processing prejudices and biases is getting to the roots of any biased or prejudiced feelings. 

Understanding heterosexual privilege and homophobia at individual, organizational, and 
societal levels is a critical component of person-centered, compassionate, effective 
counseling and advocacy and integral to cultural competence. Seeking out education 
and resources about gender identity and sexual orientation is a first step. There are 
many opportunities and trainings that can offer advocates an appropriate venue for exploring 
heterosexism, homophobia, privilege, bias, oppression and diversity within LGBTQ 
communities. Survivors should not expect to educate their service providers about these 
complexities, since their main concern is to heal from their experience with sexual violence. 


Concluding thoughts 

Victims who identify as LGBTQ experience sexual violence within a context of oppression 
and face numerous barriers to getting help after an assault. By providing culturally 
responsive services that take into consideration the unique strengths and needs of LGBTQ-
identified survivors, rape crisis centers are in a unique position to open some of the doors 
that had once been closed to this underserved group. 

What issues come up for you as you think about sexual violence occurring not just in a 
patriarchal context of males using power and control over females but as occurring by and 
against both men and women and people who identify otherwise? Had you previously 
considered hate and fear as motivators of sexual violence? 

Resiliency is one of the greatest strengths of many individuals who identify as LGBTQ; by 
necessity, creativity and the will to survive are hallmarks of many LGBTQ communities (NCAVP, 
2010). In the face of hate violence, discrimination, stigma, and stereotyping, 
LGBTQ communities have long drawn on these resources to challenge oppression and sustain 
their identities (NCAVP, 2010). By working in partnership with LGBTQ communities, rape 
crisis centers can help mobilize this communal and individual resiliency to bring about better 
outcomes for survivors of sexual violence who identify as LGBTQ. 

About This Resource 

Throughout this guide, the terms “victim” and “survivor” are used interchangeably to be 
inclusive of the various ways people who have experienced sexual violence may identify. The 
Pennsylvania Coalition Against Rape (PCAR) recognizes and supports the use of person-
first terminology that honors and respects the whole person, which is also reflected in 
this guide. Finally, the Pennsylvania Coalition Against Rape (PCAR) acknowledges that 
individuals should ultimately choose the language that is used to describe their 
experiences and therefore, supports advocacy approaches that are person-centered and that 
use the terminology preferred by individuals they serve. 


About the Author 

Sarah Dawgert, MSW, is a consultant to organizations working to empower communities 
and increase awareness of issues surrounding women’s health and wellness. Sarah has worked 
in the anti-poverty and anti-sexual violence movements since 1996. Prior to launching 
her current consulting firm, Sarah managed the education and volunteer programs at the 
Boston Area Rape Crisis Center. She also spent several years working with homeless and low-
income women and families in San Francisco’s Tenderloin neighborhood. Sarah has trained 
and coordinated community educators, developed and implemented needs/strengths 
assessments for service organizations, and facilitated state certification trainings for rape 
crisis counselors. She has trained on a range of issues related to sexual violence, has spoken at 
national and local conferences, and has been cited and published in dozens of regional and 
national media outlets. Sarah has a Bachelor’s Degree in Human Development from Boston 
College and a Masters of Social Work from Boston University. 


Contributions 

The National Sexual Violence Resource Center (NSVRC) would like to thank Lisa Fujie Parks for 
contributions to this resource. Lisa has been working to prevent domestic and sexual 
violence and promote health and equity for over 15 years as a community educator, 
advocate, trainer and consultant. Lisa has provided training and program design services 
on intimate partner violence and sexual violence prevention to community-based 
organizations, state coalitions, state health departments and universities in 10 states. She 
is currently implementing the California Partnership to End Domestic Violence’s 
Prevention Plan 2009-2013. Lisa serves on NoVo Foundation’s Advisory Group for the 
Move to End Violence initiative and a variety of committees and advisory groups in California. 


References 

Brady, S. (2008). The impact of sexual abuse on sexual 
identity formation in gay men. Journal of Child Sexual 
Abuse, 17, 359-376. doi:10.1080/10538710802329973 

Brennan, D. J., Hellerstedt, W. L., Ross, M. W., & Welles, S. L. 
(2007). History of childhood sexual abuse and HIV risk 
behaviors in homosexual and bisexual men. American 
Journal of Public Health, 97, 1107-1112. 
doi:10.2105/AJPH.2005.071423 

Cattaneo, L. B., Deloveh, H. L. M., & Zweig, J. M. (2008). 
Sexual assault within intimate partner violence: Impact 
on help seeking in a national sample. Journal of 
Prevention and Intervention in the Community, 36, 137-153. 
doi:10.1080/10852350802022415 

Christopher, F., & Pflieger, J. (2007). Sexual aggression: The 
dark side of sexuality in relationships. Annual Review of Sex 
Research, 18, 115-142. 

Descamps, M. J., Rothblum, E., Bradford, J., & Ryan, C. 
(2000). Mental health impact of child sexual abuse, rape, 
intimate partner violence, and hate crimes in the national 
Lesbian Health Care Survey. Journal of Gay and Lesbian 
Social Services, 11, 27-55. doi:10.1300/J041v11n01_02 

Elliot, P. (1996). Shattering illusions: Same sex domestic 
violence. Journal of Gay and Lesbian Social Services 4, 1-8. 
doi:10.1300/J041v04n01_01 

Gentlewarrior, S., & Fountain, K. (2009). Culturally competent 
service provision to lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender 
survivors of sexual violence. Retrieved from VAWnet, the 
National Online Resource Center on Violence Against 
Women: http://new.vawnet.org/Assoc_Files_VAWnet/AR_ 
LGBTSexualViolence.pdf 

Herek, G. M., Cogan, J. C., & Gillis, J. R. (2002). Victim 
experiences in hate crimes based on sexual orientation. 
Journal of Social Issues, 58, 319-339. 
doi:10.1111/1540-4560.00263 

Howard, A., Riger, S., Campbell, R., & Wasco, S. (2003). 
Counseling services for battered women: A comparison 
of outcomes for physical and sexual assault survivors. 
Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 18, 717-734. 
doi:10.1177/0886260503018007002 

Hughes, T. L., Haas, A. P., Razzano, L., Cassidy, R., & Matthews, 
A. (2000). Comparing lesbians and heterosexual women’s 
mental health: A multi-site survey. Journal of Gay and 
Lesbian Social Services, 11, 57-76. doi:10.1300/J041v11n01_03 
Kidd, J. D., & Witten, T. M. (2007). Transgender and 
transsexual identities.: The next strange fruit-hate 
crimes, violence and genocide against the global trans-
communities. Journal of Hate Studies, 6, 31-63. 

King, N. (2000). Childhood sexual trauma in gay men: 
Social context and the imprinted arousal pattern. 
Journal of Gay & Lesbian Social Services, 12, 19-35. 
doi:10.1300/J041v12n01_02 

Langley, L. (2001.) Developing anti-oppressive empowering 
social work practice with older lesbian women and 
gay men. British Journal of Social Work, 31, 917-932. 
doi:10.1093/bjsw/31.6.917 

Lombardi, E. L., Wilchins, R., Priesing, D., & Malouf, D. (2001). 
Gender violence: Transgender experiences with violence 
and discrimination. Journal of Homosexuality, 42, 89-101. 
doi:10.1300/J082v42n01_05 

Long, S. M., Ullman, S. E., Long, L. M., Mason, G. E., & 
Starzynski, L. L. (2007). Women’s experiences of 
male-perpetrated sexual assault experiences by 
sexual orientation. Violence and Victims, 22, 684-701. 
doi:10.1891/088667007782793138 

Mizock, L., & Lewis, T. (2008). Trauma in transgender 
populations: Risk, resilience, and clinical care. 
Journal of Emotional Abuse, 8, 335-354. 
doi:10.1080/10926790802262523 

Morris, J. F., & Balsam, K. F. (2003). Lesbian and bisexual 
women’s experiences of victimization: Mental health, 
revictimization, and sexual identity development. 
Journal of Lesbian Studies, 7(4), 67-85. 
doi: 10.1300/J155v07n04_05 

National Coalition of Anti-Violence Programs. (2010). Hate 
violence against the lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender 
and queer communities in the United States in 2009. 
Retrieved from: http://www.avp.org/documents/ 
NCAVP2009HateViolenceReportforWeb.pdf 

Paul, J. P., Catania, J., Pollack, L., & Stall, R. (2001). 
Understanding childhood sexual abuse as a predictor of 
sexual risk-taking among men who have sex with men: The 
Urban Men’s Health Study. Child Abuse & Neglect, 25, 557
584. doi:10.1016/S0145-2134(01)00226-5 

Pilarhernal, N., Almeida, R., & Dolan-Del Vecchio, K. (2005). 
Critical consciousness, accountability, and empowerment: 
Key processes for helping families heal. Family Practice, 44, 
105–119. doi:10.1111/j.1545-5300.2005.00045.x 

Saskatchewan Ad Hoc Committee on Abuse in Lesbian 
Relationships. (n.d.). Abuse in lesbian relationships and 
lesbian friendly service: A Saskatchewan Survey (20012002). 
Retrieved from Hot Peaches Pages: World-Wide List 
of Abuse Agencies: http://www.hotpeachpages.net/ALR 

Sloan, L., & Edmond, T. (1996). Shifting the focus: 
Recognizing the needs of lesbian and gay survivors 
of sexual violence. Journal of Gay and Lesbian Social 
Services, 5(4), 33-52. doi:10.1300/J041v05n04_03 

Stotzer, R. L. (2009). Violence against transgender people: 
A review of United States data. Aggression and Violent 
Behavior, 14, 170-179. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2009.01.006 

Struve, J. (1997). Clinical considerations in 
working with gay and lesbian sexual abuse 
survivors. Retrieved from The Men’s Project: 
http://themensproject.ca/index.php?ID=129&Lang=Fr 

Tjaden, P., & Thoennes, N. (2000). Extent, nature, and 
consequences of intimate partner violence: Findings 
from the National Violence Against Women Survey (NCJ 
181867). Retrieved from the U.S. Department of Justice, 
Office of Justice Programs, National Institute of Justice: 
https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/181867.pdf 

Wakelin, A., & Long, K. M. (2003). Effects of victim gender 
and sexuality on attributions of blame to rape victims. Sex 
Roles, 49, 477-487. doi: 10.1023/A:1025876522024 

Waldner-Haugrud, L. K., & Gratch, L. V. (1997). Sexual 
coercion in gay/lesbian relationships: Descriptives and 
gender differences. Violence & Victims, 12, 87-98. 

Washington Coalition of Sexual Assault Programs. (2003). 
Same-sex sexual violence. Research and Advocacy Digest, 
6(1), 1-6 



NSVRC: 123 North Enola Drive, Enola, PA 17025, Toll free 877-739-3895 
www.nsvrc.org . 
facebook.com/nsvrc . 
twitter.com/nsvrc 


PCAR: 125 North Enola Drive, Enola, PA 17025, Toll free 800-692-7445 
www.pcar.org . 
facebook.com/PCARORG . 
twitter.com/PCARORG