Sexual Violence & The Workplace 
A Guide for Advocates

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This document was supported by Cooperative Agreement #1H28CE002205-01 from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Its contents are solely the responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official views of the CDC.
The content of this publication may be reprinted with the following acknowledgement: This material was reprinted, with permission, from the National Sexual Violence Resource Center’s publication titled Sexual Violence & the Workplace: A Guide for Advocates. This guide is available by visiting www.nsvrc.org
© National Sexual Violence Resource Center 2013. All rights reserved.

Sexual violence permeates our society, including the workplace. The true magnitude
of sexual violence as it relates to employment is unknown for a number of
reasons, one of which is a lack of comprehensive research on the topic. However,
as national awareness about harmful and far-reaching effects of sexual violence grows,
more advocates and employers are taking steps to effectively address and prevent the
devastating impacts of sexual violence in the workplace.
The purpose of this technical assistance guide
is to provide advocates with information
about the connections between sexual violence
and employment and to offer possible prevention
strategies. This guide applies Sexual
Violence and the Spectrum of Prevention (The
Spectrum) (Davis, Parks, & Cohen, 2006) to
the workplace. The Spectrum is a model that
has six levels of prevention activities; each
level is used in conjunction with the rest to
reach the overarching goal of preventing
sexual violence and fostering social change.
This guide provides advocates with possible
strategies on each of the six levels of that
model. The hope is that this guide will equip
advocates with tools to engage employers as
partners in facilitating healthy and violencefree
work environments.

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Section One
About Sexual Violence

*Throughout this document, the terms “victim” and “survivor” are used interchangeably to be inclusive of the various ways people who have
experienced sexual violence may identify. The National Sexual Violence Resource Center (NSVRC) recognizes and supports the use of person-first
terminology that honors and respects the whole person, which is also reflected in this document. Finally, NSVRC acknowledges that individuals should
ultimately choose the language that is used to describe their experiences and therefore, supports advocacy approaches that are person-centered and
that use the terminology preferred by individuals they serve*

Sexual violence affects everyone; however,
power imbalances and social inequities
caused by oppressions such as sexism, racism,
classism, ageism, ableism, and heterosexism
influence sexual violence. Oppressions can
create risk factors for sexual violence and can
compound barriers to seeking and accessing
help for traditionally marginalized populations.
In the workplace, it is helpful to understand and
share with providers the complex ways that
oppressions affect migrant farmworkers;
immigrants; people of color; women; teens;
people who identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual,
transgender; people with disabilities; people
living in poverty; and others.
Sexual violence constitutes a continuum
of harmful behaviors ranging from sexual
harassment to rape.

Sexual violence research demonstrates its
pervasiveness and the profound negative effects
that sexual violence can have on individuals,
relationships, communities, and the larger
society. Survivors often experience the effects
of sexual violence across the lifespan in every
aspect of life, such as their relationships,
physical and mental health, productivity at
work and school, and their general outlook on
life and others.

Communities bear significant financial
costs associated with sexual violence. Many social systems are involved in addressing
sexual violence by responding to victims or
incarcerating, treating, and managing sex
offenders. Others incur costs due to reduced
contributions or productivity of people affected
by sexual violence. The following are some of the
social systems affected by sexual violence:
medical, mental health, criminal justice,
corrections, workplaces, child care, schools and
universities, law enforcement, military, social
service organizations, and others.

Society as a whole suffers from sexual violence
as it depletes the strength and potential of
communities around the country, including the
workplace. Sexual violence exists in a context of
oppression that is detrimental to the well-being
of the larger society, including the workplace.
Sexual violence prevention organizations in the
United States and territories work to create and
sustain healthy norms in our communities to
promote respectful, safe, and violence-free
environments. Given the significant amount of
time individuals spend at work — the average
worker in the United States spends about 33%
of their time working or participating in
work-related activities (U.S. Department of
Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics [BLS], 2010) —
the workplace is a critical environment in which
to promote such norms.
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Workplace and Sexual Violence

The relationship between sexual violence and
the workplace is complex and multifaceted.
The profound impacts of sexual violence on
employment can be felt regardless of when or
where the incident(s) occurred. Whether a
person was assaulted as a child or struggles in
the aftermath of a recent attack, the effects
are often devastating, resulting in depression,
anxiety, and Post Traumatic Stress Disorder
(PTSD). Absenteeism, impaired job performance,
and turnover are only some of the costs that
employers bear as a direct result of sexual
violence. A 2005 study on workplace violence
found that more than 70% of workplaces
in the United States did not have a formal
workplace violence program or policy. Almost
40% of employers who experienced violence
in the workplace within the last year reported
that violence had an effect on the workplace
(BLS, 2006). This illustrates how timely and
effective prevention and intervention planning
can be in averting workplace losses experienced
due to violence.

Various studies have shown how sexual violence
impacts all aspects of people’s lives, including
work and future earnings. For example, Johns
Hopkins University School of Public Health
Population Information Program (Heise, Ellsberg,
& Gottemoeller, 1999) reported that PTSD is
likely among 50% to 95% of rape survivors. In
another study, 50% of rape victims lost or were
forced to quit their jobs in the year following
their rapes due to the severity of their reactions
(Ellis, Atkeson, & Calhoun, 1981).

Many rape survivors lose time from work. The
National Violence Against Women Survey found
that of adult female rape survivors, 19.4% and
9.7% of adult male rape survivors reported their
victimization caused them to lose time from
work (Tjaden & Thoennes, 2006). Of
women raped by an intimate partner, more
than 21% of stated they lost time from paid
work, with an average of eight days lost (U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services,
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
[CDC], 2003). The 2008 National Crime
Victimization Survey found that 6.5% of rape and sexual assault victims lost one to five days
of work (U.S. Department of Justice, 2010).
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Sexual violence can cause a disruption in
educational attainment and result in lost
productivity. Lifetime income loss due to sexual
violence in adolescence is estimated at $241,600
(MacMillan, 2000). Between 8% and 13% of
individuals who recently returned to public
assistance experienced sexual harassment on
the job (Siegel & Abbott, 2007). According
to one study, rape victims incurred the
following estimated costs as a result of their
victimizations(numbers have been adjusted
for inflation): $780 in medical costs; $3,440
in mental health costs; $3,440 in productivity;
and $127,390 in quality of life (Miller, Cohen, &
Wiersema, 1996).

The economic impact of sexual violence makes
work and earnings all the more critical for sexual
violence survivors, yet research shows that often,
sexual violence interferes with a person’s ability
to hold down a job and earn a living wage. This
makes the workplace paramount to the systems
advocacy work of sexual assault advocates and
prevention educators working in communities
throughout the U.S.

In order for policies and action to occur,
the employer needs to be committed to the issue
of preventing sexual violence.
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Section Two
Spectrum of Prevention

The Role of Advocates in Workplace Sexual Violence Prevention

Sexual assault advocates and prevention
educators play an important role in preventing
sexual violence in the workplace and in
educating communities about the many
impacts that sexual violence and trauma can
have on the workplace. It is important for
advocates to reach out to employers in the
community to provide resources and training
on why employers should care about sexual
violence, how sexual violence impacts the
workplace, and ways employers can prevent
and address sexual violence in their workplace.

Advocates are leaders in coordinated sexual
violence prevention efforts. Advocates are
well-prepared to educate and train employers on
the dynamics of sexual violence and to create
comprehensive approaches to healthy and safe
work environments. Effective prevention
strategies address sexual violence before it
occurs by engaging in strategic, long-term,
comprehensive strategies which engage
multidisciplinary partners in creating positive,
healthy social norms, reducing risk for sexual
violence, and increasing protective factors.
These efforts reach audiences multiple times,
in meaningful ways that expand skills and
change behaviors and empower communities
in the creation of healthy social norms. These
strategies are most effective when developed
with diverse, multidisciplinary community
partners, and tailored to the strengths and
needs of audiences. When employers are understanding
of the issue of sexual violence in the
workplace, its root causes, and the need for its
prevention, and willing to implement policies, the
positive effects are felt not only at the individual
level, but throughout the workplace and society
as a whole. In order for policies and action to
occur, the employer needs to be committed to
the issue of preventing sexual violence.

The Spectrum of Prevention is a tool for
effectively developing a comprehensive
prevention strategy which is designed for
advocates, practitioners, and educators who are
interested in advancing solutions for developing
safer and healthier communities. The Spectrum
of Prevention outlines six levels of intervention,
which can help communities to design their own
appropriate strategy to combat local issues:
(1) strengthening individual knowledge and skills; 
(2) promoting community education;
(3) educating providers; (4) fostering coalitions
and networks; (5) changing organizational
practices; (6) and influencing policy and
legislation. Activity at any of The Spectrum’s six
levels constitutes an intervention, but if used
in combination, The Spectrum has a more
effective transformative power. The interrelatedness
between levels of The Spectrum
enables advocates to maximize the result of any
one prevention activity (Cohen & Swift, 1999).
Using The Spectrum of Prevention Model,
advocates and preventionists can work on all
six levels of the Spectrum to prevent workplace
sexual violence.
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Level One: Strengthening Individual Knowledge and Skills

The first level of The Spectrum focuses on
“Strengthening Individual Knowledge and Skills”
(Davis et al., 2010, p. 8). Advocates can offer
workplace presentations, educational groups,
and individual employee and/or management
knowledge and skill-building efforts to increase
the capacity of employers and employees.
Employers who understand the destructive
consequences of sexual violence on workplace
productivity are more open and willing to work
with their employees and victim advocates on
creating safe and supportive violence-free
workplaces. Advocates and prevention educators
can help workplaces address and prevent sexual
violence by increasing individual prevention
skills. For example, advocates can provide
ongoing training and support to ensure that
individuals at every level of the workplace
understand sexual violence and its negative
impacts on work and know how to get involved
as an active bystander — whether that is
through their roles as managers, supervisors,
or colleagues. (See Level Three for more
information about the bystander program.)
Additional ways that advocates can strengthen
individual knowledge and skills is by raising
awareness about community programs and
resources to help survivors of sexual violence,
as well as resources on wellness and violence
prevention programs available in the community.
Advocates can reinforce to employers the
importance of actively promoting programs
and services available to employees such as
Employee Assistance Programs (EAP), health
and wellness programs as well as workplace
violence policies and reporting procedures.
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Level Two: Promoting Community Education

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The second level of The Spectrum focuses on
“Promoting Community Education” (Davis et al.,
2006, p. 9). The workplace is a community in
and of itself. It is also a critical part of the larger
community and has an important leadership role
in sexual violence prevention. The workplace is
where people spend a majority of their time
during the day; therefore, it is important for the
workplace to be involved in community activities
and to be seen as an active and positive
influence in the community. To this end,
advocates can work with workplaces in the
community to develop media campaigns and
outreach materials as a way to involve the
whole community in workplace sexual violence
prevention. Materials on sexual violence prevention
and intervention can be placed in a wide
range of community settings including childcare,
medical, legal, faith, education, employment,
public assistance, and service sector settings.

Additionally, advocates can promote prevention
throughout the community by participating in
community-wide health and employment fairs
and events and providing trainings at those
venues. Advocates’ presence at these
community events can raise awareness of
sexual violence in the workplace and provide
information and materials to employees for
services available in the community. This also is
a place advocates are likely to have contact
with employers so they can provide employers
with information on workplace violence
prevention policies and offer training and
assistance in improving workplace policies
to include sexual violence victims.

Engaging in media advocacy is a critical
component of prevention, ensuring that
journalists report on sexual violence in a way
that promotes awareness, eliminates victimblaming
sentiment, and increases community
members’ skills in preventing sexual violence.
Advocates, workplaces, and community members
can partner together in raising awareness about
sexual violence. The month of April has been
designated Sexual Assault Awareness Month
(SAAM) in the United States. The goal of SAAM is
to raise public awareness about sexual violence
and to educate communities and individuals on
how to prevent sexual violence. Through coordinated
planning of special events, advocates can
raise awareness, media attention, and national
momentum for ending and preventing sexual
violence in the workplace. For more information
on SAAM and current campaign resources
and materials, visit www.nsvrc.org/saam. For
resources in Spanish, visit www.nsvrc.org/es/
saam. There are resources on the SAAM website
geared toward engaging employers and sexual
violence in the workplace (http://www.nsvrc.org/
saam/workplace-resources).
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Level Three:
Educating Providers
The third level of The Spectrum focuses on
“Educating Providers” (Davis et al., 2006,
p. 10). One critical role of advocates is to provide
training on the prevention of sexual violence.
Advocates can provide training to employers to
ensure that sexual violence is prevented in the
workplace at every level, from the ground up.
Everyone has a role to play in preventing sexual
violence in the workplace. Therefore, training
workplaces on sexual violence would be best
conducted at different levels to ensure a
comprehensive approach to sexual violence
prevention and response. 

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"Bystander intervention training teaches supervisors
and managers how to respond early to interrupt
potentially problematic behaviors."

For example, training human resource professionals could include
information about the workplace’s legal and
ethical responsibilities, the development of a
workplace violence prevention and response
plan, as well as information about EAPs and
other services for employees. Training for
managers might focus on the importance of
serving as a positive role model and using
supervision to create healthy workplace norms,
offering flexibilities to survivors, and holding
employees accountable when they violate the
workplace violence prevention and response
policy. Training for employees might also focus
on modeling healthy and respectful workplace
norms, how they can become active bystanders,
and reviews of the workplace violence
prevention and response plan.
The bystander prevention program lends
itself particularly well to the workplace and
cross-training efforts. At work or in the
community, everyone has the opportunity to
be an engaged bystander. The general public
witnesses a continuum of behaviors that
range from being respectful and safe, to being
sexually abusive and violent in a variety of
community settings, including in the workplace.
The bystander approach teaches potential
witnesses safe and positive ways that they can
act to prevent or intervene when there is risk for
sexual violence. Bystander intervention training 
gives community members specific roles that
they can use in preventing sexual violence,
including naming and stopping situations that
could lead to sexual violence before it happens,
safely stepping in during an incident, and
speaking out against ideas and behaviors that
support sexual violence. The bystander approach
also gives individuals the skills to be an effective
and supportive ally to survivors after an assault
has taken place.

There are many strategies to educate
employees; one effective approach is bystander
intervention training. When determining
how to educate and train workplaces, it is
important to take into consideration workplaces’
current policies and workplace culture so that
the training is tailored to the organization.
Training should also build on positive strengths
of the organization or workplace such as an
existing violence prevention program or a
wellness program.

Effective bystander intervention training can
help create healthy norms in the workplace. It
provides models of helping interactions, offers
assistance to potential victims and sends a
strong message to potential offenders that
inappropriate behaviors will not be tolerated.
The goal is to create an environment where the
cost of apathy (doing nothing) is high and is
balanced by even higher benefits of engagement.
The bystander approach discourages
victim-blaming, offers the chance to change
social norms, and shifts responsibility to men
and women (Tabachnick, 2009). Bystander
intervention training teaches supervisors and
managers how to respond early to interrupt
potentially problematic behaviors.
For more information on bystander intervention,
see the resources and materials on the NSVRC
website at http://www.nsvrc.org/projects/
engaging-bystanders. An online learning module
is available. Engaging Bystanders in Sexual
Violence Prevention can be accessed at
http://www.nsvrc.org/elearning/3546.

Cross-Training:
Cross-training gives people a sense
of ownership of the problem and an
opportunity to make a difference in their
neighborhood. When cross-training occurs
among community partners, it provides
each participant with tools to identify and
respond to sexual violence and promotes
violence–free norms in their respective
workplaces. Advocates can work to
cross-train multidisciplinary partners
and stakeholders to prevent and respond
to sexual violence in their respective
workplaces. These partners could include
social workers, nurses, doctors, attorneys,
legislators, and others.
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Level Four: Fostering Coalitions and Networks

The fourth level of The Spectrum focuses on
“Fostering Coalitions and Networks” (Davis
et al., 2006, p. 11). Advocates can collaborate
with multidisciplinary partners to establish a
community-based task force to foster systemic
changes and violence-free norms. Engaging
community partners ensures that the issue
of sexual violence and its root causes are
addressed on multiple levels of the community.
Each community partner has its own unique
skills and resources to prevent sexual violence.
Collaborations bring together key participants
to ensure the success of prevention and
intervention campaigns. They also bridge
gaps in expertise, conserve resources, foster
cooperation, and achieve goals that would be
unattainable for a single advocate.
In collaborative efforts to prevent workplace
violence, the sum is greater than its individual
parts. It might be helpful to introduce sexual
violence and the workplace as an agenda item
for existing committees, task forces, and
collaborations. Possible relevant groups to
consider mobilizing around workplace issues
could include those focused on health, mental
health, sexual violence prevention/health
promotion, economic justice, and others.
Advocates also could collaborate with
employers and provide trainings or facilitate
discussions on how sexual violence is a
workplace issue for boards and staff.
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Level Five: Changing Organizational Practices

The fifth level of The Spectrum focuses on
“Changing Organizational Practices” (Davis
et al., 2006, p. 12). Advocates can provide
workplaces with resources and feedback
on organizational policy changes that are
comprehensive and culturally competent.
Antiviolence policies and procedures must be
written and widely distributed so that everyone
can have immediate access to them when
needed. Employee turnover should also be
taken into consideration, and all new employees
should be trained and made aware of violence
prevention policies and procedures. Employers
have a legal obligation and a social responsibility
to prevent violence in the workplace and
to respond to such violence and its effects. By
developing a consistent and victim-centered
prevention and response plan, organizations
will enjoy the benefits of limited liability and
increased productivity. Advocates can play a
critical role in helping employers create and
adapt a workplace violence prevention and
response plan. The core components of a workplace
violence prevention and response plan
include policy development, education and
training, implementation and response, and
evaluation. For more information about workplace
sexual violence prevention and response
plan, see the Sexual Violence & the Workplace: A
Guide for Employers (Benner, 2013) included in
this information packet.

At level five of The Spectrum, employers
can institute policies and practices that are
responsive to the needs of sexual violence
survivors. Such policies and practices can
include such paid leave options as annual leave,
sick leave, or medical leave, or such unpaid
leave as leave covered under the Family and
Medical Leave Act of 1993 or leave without pay.
Alternative worksite arrangements can assist a
victim in coping and recovering from the trauma
by offering telecommuting options or providing
the ability to utilize a flexible schedule so the
victim can attend court hearings, counseling, and
other medical appointments while maintaining
employment. Survivor privacy and confidentiality
are important to prioritize throughout a
workplace violence prevention policy and plan.

An EAP is another workplace resource that
employers could consider providing their
employees. EAPs are designed to help
employees connect with resources to address
a range of personal and professional issues
or challenges that could affect their work and
productivity. EAPs can often assist employees
in accessing supportive information and services
in the following areas: health, mental health,
housing, transportation, legal, education,
management, employee and other relationships,
and more. Proactive EAPs can serve as
supportive resources to survivors of sexual
violence and assist advocates in helping
survivors navigate such services and resources.
EAPs can help to create a work culture in which
the well-being of employees is prioritized and
nurtured. Together, managers and advocates can
create an organization-specific plan about sexual
violence prevention programs targeting safety
and security of the workplace.
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Level Six: Influencing Policies and Legislation

The sixth level of the Spectrum focuses on
“Influencing Policies and Legislation” (Davis
et al., 2006, pp. 13-14). Advocates are influential
in building support around legislation that
reduces risk factors and increases protective
factors around workplace sexual violence, and
workplace flexibilities that will support victims.
Policy reform is often needed when attempting
to change public perceptions and social norms
and eliminating the social conditions that
perpetuate sexual violence in the workplace.
Public policies could include those that address
economic security and violence prevention such
as legislation associated with violence against
women and health promotion; the minimum
wage; job creation; time off and work leave;
public-assistance programs; health care and
other work benefits; immigration employment
rights; childcare; anti-poverty; and others.
Advocates play a critical role in public policy
advocacy because they are experts in sexual
violence prevention and intervention and
well-aware of the needs of their local
communities and of survivors of sexual violence.
For more information on engaging in public
policy advocacy, see Public Policy Advocacy:
A Guide for Sexual Assault Counselors and
Advocates: If We Don’t Speak Up, Who Else
Will? (Greco, 2007).
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Conclusion

Workplace sexual violence is part of a larger societal issue that requires systemic
change. In partnership with advocates and prevention educators at the
local level, employers have the opportunity to make significant changes in
their communities. Through modeling responsible policies and practices they can impact
employees, vendors, customers and clients. The Spectrum provides a blueprint for multilevel
efforts that help create work environments that are free from violence and responsive to the
needs of sexual violence survivors. Advocates and preventionists can bring their expertise and
skills to help employers nurture these positive work cultures — cultures in which individuals
are safe at work and are able to be fully present and productive community members. New
policies and procedures with a proactive focus on prevention will lead the way to healthy, safe,
and violence-free workplaces.
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Section Four
Publication Information

About the Author- Jennifer Benner, MPP
Jennifer Benner is the Resource Development Specialist at the National Sexual Violence Resource
Center (NSVRC) where she is responsible for developing resources and materials on a range of
sexual violence topics. Prior to joining the NSVRC, she worked in the reproductive justice field while
obtaining her master’s degree in public policy. Jennifer’s interests include public policy research,
social science research, and advocating for social justice.

National Sexual Violence Resource Center
Founded by the Pennsylvania Coalition Against Rape in 2000, the National Sexual Violence
Resource Center (NSVRC) identifies, develops and disseminates resources regarding all
aspects of sexual violence prevention and intervention. NSVRC activities include training and
technical assistance, referrals, consultation, systems advocacy, resource library, capacity-building,
integrating research findings with community-based projects, coordinating Sexual Assault
Awareness Month, cosponsoring national conferences and events, and creating Web-based and
social networking resources.
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Section Five
References

Benner, J. (2013). Sexual violence & the workplace: A guide
for employers. Retrieved from the National Sexual Violence
Resource Center: http://nsvrc.org/publications/nsvrcpublications-
guides/sexual-violence-workplace-employersguide-
prevention

Cohen, L., & Swift, S. (1999). The spectrum of prevention:
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Davis, R., Parks, L. F., & Cohen, L. (2006). Sexual violence
and the spectrum of prevention: Towards a community
solution. Retrieved from the National Sexual Violence
Resource Center: http://www.nsvrc.org/sites/default/
files/Publications_NSVRC_Booklets_Sexual-Violenceand-
the-Spectrum-of-Prevention_Towards-a-Community-
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Ellis, E. M., Atkeson, B. M., & Calhoun, K. S. (1981).
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Greco, D. (2007). Public policy advocacy: A guide for sexual
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Heise, L., Ellsberg, M., & Gottemoeller, M. (1999). Ending
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MacMillan, R. (2000). Adolescent victimization and income
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Miller, T. R., Cohen, M. A., & Wiersema, B. (1996). Victim costs
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Siegel, D. I., & Abbott, A. A. (2007). The work lives of the
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Tabachnick, J. (2009). Engaging bystanders in sexual violence
prevention. Retrieved from the National Sexual Violence
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Publications_NSVRC_Booklets_Engaging-Bystanders-in-
Sexual-Violence-Prevention.pdf

Tjaden, P., & Thoennes, N. (2006). Extent, nature, and
consequence of rape victimization: Findings from the
National Violence Against Women Survey (NCJ
210346).Retrieved from the National Criminal Justice
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nij/210346.pdf

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for
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partner violence against women in the United States.
Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/pdf/
IPVBook-a.pdf

U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs,
Bureau of Justice Statistics. (2010). Criminal victimization
in the United States, 2008 statistical tables: National Crime
Victimization Survey (NCJ 227669). Retrieved from
http://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/content/pub/pdf/cvus08.pdf

U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2006).
Survey of Workplace Violence Prevention, 2005 (USDL
06-1860). Retrieved from http://www.bls.gov/iif/oshwc/
osnr0026.pdf

U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2010).
American Time Use Survey: Table A-1. Retrieved from
http://www.bls.gov/tus/tables/a1_2010.pdf
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