Engaging Bystanders to Prevent Sexual Violence Annotated bibliography This annotated bibliography provides advocates and preventionists research on the efficacy of bystander intervention in preventing sexual violence, and provides information on various bystander programs. Some of the articles included are not specific to sexual violence but help shed light on bystander behavior that can be applied to work in sexual violence prevention. The bibliography features research articles, books, and presentation materials from 1994 to 2012 on bystander intervention theory and programs in various settings, including campus and workplace environments. Banyard, V. L., Moynihan, M. M., & Plante, E. G. (2007). Sexual violence prevention through bystander education: An experimental evaluation. Journal of Community Psychology, 35, 463-481. doi:10.1002/jcop.20159 This article discusses an evaluation of a sexual violence prevention program intended to increase bystand­er intervention among undergraduate university students. This article describes the results from the 2005 study by Banyard, Plante, and Moynihan: Rape Prevention Through Bystander Education: Bringing a Broader Community Perspective to Sexual Violence Prevention. The participants who were exposed to prevention programming demon­strated a greater sense of bystander efficacy, reported more bystander behaviors, had greater knowledge about sexual violence, and showed less acceptance of rape myths than subjects in the control group. Banyard, V. L., Plante, E. G., & Moynihan, M. M. (2004). Bystander education: Bringing a broader community perspective to sexual violence prevention. Journal of Community Psychology, 32, 61-79. doi:10.1002/jcop.10078 This article reviews research on sexual violence prevention, particularly as it relates to bystander intervention and community-level change. The authors explore literature on community norms change, community receptivity to anti-sexual violence programming, and variables that encourage or inhibit bystander intervention. The authors conclude that a bystander approach employs a broader community context that engages all members of the community and reinforces the idea that every member in the community has a role to play to end sexual violence. The authors encourage sexual violence prevention programs with bystander intervention content, arguing that a focus on bystanders can produce positive outcomes and facilitate community change. Banyard, V. L., Plante, E. G., & Moynihan, M. M. (2005). Rape prevention through bystander education: Bringing a broader community perspective to sexual violence prevention. Retrieved from the National Criminal Justice Reference Service: https:// www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/208701.pdf This report reviews the body of literature on sexual violence prevention, devoting attention specifically to research on community-level change and bystander intervention. The report also provides findings from a study of 389 undergraduate students in which subjects were placed in a one-session bystander intervention program, a three-session program, or a control group. Findings suggest that subjects who took part in sexual assault prevention programming emphasizing bystander intervention reported a greater sense of bystander efficacy, increased positive bystander behaviors (any behavior that helps others), a deeper under­standing of sexual violence, and less acceptance of rape myths than subjects in the control group. Berkowitz, A. (2009). Response ability: A complete guide to bystander intervention. Chicago, IL: Beck & Co. This book introduces readers to theories and research on bystander intervention, detailing stages of bystander behavior, characteristics of direct and indirect intervention, factors that inhibit bystander intervention, and skills for successful interventions. Christy, C. A., & Voight, H. (1994). Bystander responses to public episodes of child abuse. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 24, 824-847. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.1994.tb00614.x This article describes a study of self-reported bystander intervention and variables associated with active bystanders. In a study of 567 college students and faculty, almost half (48%) reported having witnessed actual or possible child abuse in public. Among those who reported witnessing child abuse, approximately one-fourth reported that they had intervened either directly (physical or verbal interaction with the victim or perpetrator) or indirectly (calling the authorities, encouraging others to intervene, etc.). Respondents who reported intervention were more likely to feel responsible for stopping abuse, feel certain about how to intervene, and know or identify with the abuse victim. Fischer P., Greitemeyer, T., Pollozek, F., & Frey, D. (2006). The unresponsive bystander: Are bystanders more responsive in dangerous emergencies? European Journal of Social Psychology, 36, 267-278. doi:10.1002/ejsp.297 This study examines whether the presence of another potential (albeit unresponsive) bystander affects an observer’s willingness to intervene in an emergency. In a study of 86 subjects, participants witnessed simulated situations in which a man verbally attacked and touched a woman without her consent. In one scenario, the female was attacked by a skinny male of “low potential danger.” In the other scenario, the woman was attacked by a strong-looking, “high potential danger” male. Participants witnessed the simulated incidents in one of two scenarios: alone or in the presence of an apathetic bystander. Overall, 37% of participants tried to assist the simulated victim in both scenarios. Participants were less likely to intervene when the situation did not appear dangerous (i.e., a small, not intimidating perpetrator) than in a situation that appeared more dangerous (i.e., a small victim and large, imposing perpetrator). The presence of an apathetic bystander alongside respondents did not significantly affect helping behaviors. Flood, M. (2006). Changing men: Best practice in sexual violence education. Women Against Violence, 18, 26-36. Retrieved from http://www.xyonline.net/sites/default/files/ Flood,%20Changing%20men.pdf This commentary highlights the role of men in promoting primary prevention of sexual violence While taking note of insufficient research on violence prevention programs targeting men, Flood stresses that such programs can bring about positive changes in men’s attitudes. Flood describes the elements of successful violence prevention programs, the usefulness of instruction, and the importance of encouraging bystander intervention among men. Katz, J., Heisterkamp, H. A., & Fleming, W. M. (2011). The social justice roots of the Mentors in Violence Prevention model and its application in a high school setting. Violence Against Women, 17, 684-702. doi:10.1177/1077801211409725 This article addresses the social justice roots of the Mentors in Violence Prevention (MVP) model and presents the findings from a study on the influence of the MVP program in a high school setting. MVP was founded with the goal to shift cultural norms that condone violence against women and to encourage people to speak up when they witness abusive behavior — before, during, and after the event. MVP trainings emphasize dialogue in single-sex groups. For this study, two schools were compared, one with the MVP program and a control school without the MVP program. Results indicate that high school students exposed to the MVP program are more likely to see various forms of violence as wrong and are more likely to intervene than students not exposed to the MVP program. Koelsch, L. E., Brown, A. L., & Boisen, L. (2012). Bystander perceptions: Implications for university sexual assault prevention programs. Violence and Victims, 27, 563-579. doi:10.1891/0886-6708.27.4.563 In a study of 51 college students in four focus groups, participants discussed alcohol use and sexual behavior at college parties. Participants in all groups stated that bystander intervention is necessary when sexually coercive acts occur or are about to occur at parties. Most participants, men in particular, suggested it is a woman’s responsibility to ensure her safety and that of her friends’. Focus group responses suggest that college students are willing to perform proactive bystander intervention and are armed with intervention strategies. However, barriers to intervention, such as failure to recognize assaultive behavior or take responsibility, can inhibit effective bystander intervention. McDonald, P., & Flood, M. (2012). Encourage. Support. Act! Bystander approaches to sexual harassment in the workplace. Retrieved from the Australian Human Rights Commission: https://www.humanrights.gov.au/sites/default/files/content/sexualharassment/bystander/ bystander_june2012.pdf This report discusses bystander intervention as a tool for addressing workplace sexual harassment, arguing that bystander intervention is more likely to impact sexual harassment than organizational approaches that rely on individual complaints. The report explores factors that increase or decrease the likelihood of bystander intervention, organizational and legal challenges to sexual harassment prevention, and the relevance of existing bystander intervention programs to workplace initiatives. Moonan, R. K., & Charles, D. (2009). Developing teen dating violence prevention strategies: Formative research with middle school youth. Violence Against Women, 15, 1087-1105. doi:10.1177/1077801209340761 This article discusses the results of youth focus group discussions on romantic relationships and bystander intervention. In a study of 12 focus groups with youth between the ages of 11-14, participants discussed romantic relationships, gender roles in relationships, and intimate partner violence. Respondents indicated that little peer support exists for boys to show respect and support to girlfriends, and that emotional abuse of girls contained a degree of public performance for the purpose of humiliation. While physical violence and sexual assault were not widely reported, that which was reported was mostly male-on-female violence. Despite widespread disapproval of abusive behaviors, most focus group participants reported that peers their age would be unlikely to intervene in abusive situations not involving friends. The authors discuss potential strategies for promoting bystander intervention skills and tailoring bystander intervention programs for various audiences. Moynihan, M. M., & Banyard V. L. (2008). Community responsibility for preventing sexual violence: A pilot study with campus Greeks and intercollegiate athletes. Journal of Prevention and Intervention in the Community, 36, 23-38. doi:10.1080/10852350802022274 This article discusses a campus bystander intervention program targeting fraternity, sorority, and athlete cultures. In a study of a sexual assault prevention program emphasizing bystander intervention, 127 students from a fraternity, a sorority, and athletic groups completed surveys on sexual assault before and after exposure to the program. Survey results demonstrated that participants experienced an increase in knowledge about bystander intervention, helping attitudes, and bystander efficacy after participating in the program. Moynihan, M. M., & Banyard, V., L. (2009). Educating bystanders helps prevent sexual violence and reduce backlash. Sexual Assault Report, 12, 49-64. This article discusses sexual assault prevention programs with bystander intervention content, exploring the programs’ potential for long-term attitudinal change as well as backlash or scores that worsened after participating in the program. The authors discuss key elements of sexual violence prevention programs that emphasize bystander intervention, highlighting several best practices. The article also details a study of 389 undergraduate students exposed to a short bystander intervention program, a long bystander intervention program, or a control group. Results indicate that more participants in the longer program reported a significant decrease in rape myth acceptance compared to the other two groups, as well as increased knowledge of sexual assault and increased willingness to intervene. Only some program participants' scores worsened after participating in the program. Moynihan, M. M., Banyard, V. L., Arnold, J. S., Eckstein, R. P., & Stapleton, J. G. (2011). Sisterhood may be powerful for reducing sexual and intimate partner violence: An evaluation of the Bringing in the Bystander in-person program with sorority members. Violence Against Women, 17, 703-719. doi:10.1177/1077801211409726 This article discusses the results from a study of 36 sorority members who participated in the in-person training of the Bringing in the Bystander® program as compared with 20 sorority members who did not participate in the training. The results of the study indicated that sorority members who participated in the program showed increased bystander efficacy and increased likelihood to help. The results indicate the necessity for targeted programming to sorority members in preventing sexual violence. Plante, E. G., Banyard, V. L., Moynihan, M. M., & Eckstein, R. P. (2008). Bringing in the Bystander: A prevention workshop for establishing a community of responsibility: Facilitator’s guide (Rev. ed.). Durham, NH: University of New Hampshire. This guide provides instruction and guidance on implementing a Bringing in the Bystander® program at the college level. It includes training materials, fact sheets, discussion guides, and scenarios to lead participants and train them on the Bringing in the Bystander® program. The presentation material discusses bystander reluctance to intervene in sexually coercive situations, factors that increase the likelihood of bystander intervention, and the positive impact of bystander intervention on sexual violence prevention. This guide should be used in conjunction with the PowerPoint presentation, titled Bringing in the Bystander®: A Prevention Workshop for Establishing a Community of Responsibility. Potter, S. J., & Moynihan, M. M. (2011). Bringing in the Bystander in-person prevention program to a U.S. military installation: Results from a pilot study. Military Medicine, 176, 870-875. This article discusses the results from a pilot study of utilizing the bystander intervention program, Bringing in the Bystander®, on a military installation. In a study of 394 soldiers, 131 soldiers participated in the program. Soldiers participating in the program were significantly more likely to engage in one or more bystander behaviors, than the soldiers who did not participate in the program. Potter, S. J., Moynihan, M. M., & Stapleton, J. G. (2011). Using social self-identification in social marketing materials aimed at reducing violence against women on campus. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 26, 971-990. doi:10.1177/0886260510365870 This article describes a study on a bystander social marketing campaign and the concept of social self-identification and its use as a prevention tool in social marketing campaigns. Social self-identification is the concept that when the audience sees images of situations that they can relate to and sees people in those images who look like them, they are more likely to absorb the campaign message. When images do not resonate with the target audience and the people, scenarios, and locations do not look like situations the target audience is used to seeing in their daily life, then they are less likely to absorb the message of the campaign. This is especially important when developing campaign materials, so that the target audience is reached. Potter, S. J., Moynihan, M. M., Stapleton, J. G., & Banyard, V. L. (2009). Empowering bystanders to prevent campus violence against women: A preliminary evaluation of a poster campaign. Violence Against Women, 15, 106-121. doi:10.1177/1077801208327482 This article evaluates a campus poster campaign designed to promote bystander intervention behaviors. Posters were placed in 285 campus sites and 65 off-campus sites frequented by students for four weeks following spring break. After the poster campaign, 372 undergraduate students completed an online survey about sexual violence on campus. Results indicated that 78% of respondents reported seeing the posters, and those students who saw the posters were more likely to get involved in reducing violence against women and more likely to have taken action to reduce violence against women. The authors conclude that poster campaigns can be a successful component of campus sexual assault prevention initiatives. Potter, S. J., & Stapleton, J. G. (2011). Bringing in the target audience in bystander social marketing materials for communities: Suggestions for practitioners. Violence Against Women, 17, 797-812. doi:10.1177/1077801211410364 This article provides practical strategies for practitioners to use to engage target audiences in the development of social marketing. The authors use examples and lessons learned from the development and evaluation of the Know Your Power® social marketing campaign. This article describes what social marketing campaigns are and the importance of evaluation of the campaign and knowing your target audience. This article provides practical tips when conducting focus groups and selecting marketing materials. Potter, S. J., Stapleton, J. G., & Moynihan, M. M. (2008). Designing, implementing, and evaluating a media campaign illustrating the bystander role. Journal of Prevention & Intervention in the Community, 36, 39-55. doi:10.1080/10852350802022308 This article describes a bystander intervention program designed and implemented by the Multidisciplinary Media Campaign Workgroup (MMCW) with the aim of reducing violence against women on campus. After reviewing 15 media campaigns intended to prevent sexual violence, the MMCW designed a media campaign model­ing bystander intervention behaviors in situations involving violence against women. Focus groups consisting of first-year undergraduate students provided feedback on the MMCW’s media campaign prototypes. A total of 72% of students responded positively to the campaign, while others provided input on how to improve the campaign. These results suggest that social media campaigns with bystander intervention content can be effective, but that the involvement of informants from the target audience and community can augment these efforts. Powell, A. (2011). Review of bystander approaches in support of preventing violence against women. Available from the Victorian Health Promotion Foundation: http://www. vichealth.vic.gov.au/Publications/Freedom-from-violence/Review-of-bystander-approach­ es-in-support-of-preventing-violence-against-women.aspx This report reviews the body of literature on bystander intervention as a form of sexual violence prevention, with attention to program evaluations, implementation concerns, the role of the community, and factors that encourage or inhibit program implementation. Powell, A. (2012). More than ready: Bystander action to prevent violence against women in the Victorian community: Research report. Available from the Victorian Health Promotion Foundation: http://www.vichealth.vic.gov.au/Publications/Freedom-from-violence/Bystander -Research-Project.aspx This report stresses the importance of bystander intervention as a tool for preventing violence against women, emphasizing that violence prevention and social norms change is a community responsibility. In a survey of 603 residents of Victoria, Australia, many respondents expressed support for bystander action and willingness to intervene in incidents involving sexist discrimination or violence against women. However, a significant portion of respondents failed to recognize subtle, systematic forms of sexism (i.e., sexist jokes and attitudes) as serious or deserving of bystander intervention. The survey found that bystanders are most likely to intervene when they understand offending behaviors to be serious and believe that peers and community will strongly support their intervention. The report encourages bystander intervention education programs to promote knowledge of sexism and violence against women, increase bystander intervention skills, and reduce perceived social costs of bystander action. Tabachnick, J. (2009). Engaging bystanders in sexual violence prevention. Retrieved from the National Sexual Violence Resource Center: http://www.nsvrc.org/sites/default/files/ Publications_NSVRC_Booklets_Engaging-Bystanders-in-Sexual-Violence-Prevention.pdf This booklet introduces readers to bystander intervention, emphasizing its importance as a component of sexual violence prevention. The author discusses the benefits of a bystander intervention approach, the role of bystander intervention in changing social norms, and the relevance of the social-ecological model and spectrum of prevention for bystander intervention. The booklet provides sample activities and scenarios for bystander intervention education programs. This booklet is also available in Spanish. Twemlow, S. W., Fonagy, P., & Sacco, F. C. (2004). The role of the bystander in the social architecture of bullying and violence in schools and communities. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1036, 215-232. doi:10.1196/annals.1330.014 This article discusses the bystander roles played by teachers and students and how these relate to school bullying and violence. The authors examine the dynamics of bullying and identify several types of bystanders in bullying situations (i.e., avoidant, altruistic). The article reviews research on the relationship between teacher bystander intervention, bullying escalation, and student bystander behaviors. Finally, the article highlights the Peaceful Schools Project, a school program that encourages a constructive bystander approach and discourages bullying and violence. For more information, contact the National Sexual Violence Resource Center at 877-739-3895 or visit http://tinyurl.com/ofrw5v2. © National Sexual Violence Resource Center 2013. All rights reserved. This document was supported by Cooperative Agreement #1H28CE002205-01 from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Its contents are solely the responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official views of the CDC.